"Ecologism: Exploring its Types and Philosophical Variations"

Ecologism has emerged as a fully-formed ideology since the 1960s, although it has intellectual roots that can be traced back centuries like other recent ideologies. However, the development of a distinct set of ideas and recommended actions is a recent development.

It is important to differentiate ecologism from environmentalism, as environmentalists primarily focus on protecting the environment due to its impact on human well-being. On the other hand, ecologists attribute value to something called "ecology" or "nature."

The term "ecology" was coined by the German Zoologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866, but it gained widespread usage in the 1970s. The German Greens were the first to adopt this term. The emergence of green parties has associated the term with their specific ideas and policies, rather than the broader principles of the environmental movement.

The growth of green ideology has been driven by the progress of industrialization and urbanization, particularly resonating with the younger generation's sensibilities regarding materialism. Several influential books have contributed to raising awareness about the ecological crisis, starting with Rachel Carson's "The Silent Spring" in 1962. Other notable works include Ehrlich and Harriman's "How to Be a Survival" (1971), Goldsmith et. al.'s "Blueprint of Survival" (1972), the UN's unofficial report "Only One Earth" (1972), and the Club of Rome's "The Limits to Growth" (1972).

Types of Ecologism:

• Eco-Socialism: Eco-Socialism incorporates Marxist analysis of capitalism. For instance, Rudolph Bahro, a German sociologist, argued that environmental problems stem from capitalism. According to this perspective, addressing environmental issues requires the abolition or regulation of capitalism. They propose that if wealth is collectively owned, it will be utilized in the best interests of humanity in the long run.

• Eco-Anarchism: Murray Bookchin introduced the concept of Eco-Anarchism in his work "Our Synthetic Environment" in 1962, preceding Rachel Carson's "The Silent Spring." Eco-Anarchists find a strong connection between anarchist ideals and ecological principles. They believe that a stateless society can foster harmony through mutual respect and social solidarity among individuals. Green thinkers also emphasize the spontaneous balance within nature. Eco-Anarchists advocate for decentralized societies organized around communal principles, where communities strive for self-sufficiency while living in close proximity to nature.

• Eco-Feminism: Eco-Feminism revolves around the notion that ecological destruction originates from patriarchy. It posits that nature is threatened due to male dominance and institutions of male power. The sexual division of labor leads men to subjugate both women and nature, viewing themselves as the 'masters' of both. Mary Daly's book "Gyn/Ecology" (1979) supports the belief in an inherent difference between men and women. It suggests that women can free themselves from patriarchal culture by aligning with 'female nature.' While women are viewed as connected to nature, men's relationship with nature is seen as distinct, shaped by their cultural influences. Thus, ecological destruction and gender inequality are considered part of the same process in which 'cultured men' dominate 'natural women.'

Ecologism in the 21st Century:

In the era of globalization, issues such as global warming and the preservation of animal and plant species have gained significant prominence. The modern Green Movement has embraced a global perspective and is closely aligned with the broader anti-globalization or anti-capitalist movement.

Shallow & Deep Ecology:

Shallow and Deep Ecology are two significant approaches to environmental ethics.

The concept of deep ecology was coined by Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess in his essay "The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movements: A Summary," published in 1973. Deep ecology emphasizes the interconnectedness and intrinsic value of all living beings, promoting a holistic view of nature.

On the other hand, thinkers like Anthony Weston and others support the idea of shallow ecology, which focuses on more immediate and practical environmental concerns without delving into the deeper philosophical aspects.

Different Understanding of Ecosystem

Shallow Ecology:

Shallow ecology can be described as a philosophical or political stance that advocates for environmental preservation only to the extent that it serves human interests. It rejects the principles of ecocentrism and biocentrism, which prioritize the intrinsic value of nature and all living beings.

Shallow ecologists argue that there is nothing inherently problematic with an anthropocentric worldview, where human beings are considered the primary focus. They believe that nature holds value only in relation to its usefulness for humans.

Proponents of shallow ecology adhere to four fundamental principles:

• Rational beings (humans) are the only life-forms of value.

• Humans can derive benefits from the environment.

• If environmental damage hinders the fulfillment of human needs, it becomes a matter of concern.

• If harming the environment also harms humans, efforts should be made to protect the environment.

• Shallow Ecology is supported by philosopher Anthony Weston and other proponents.

Deep Ecology:

Deep ecology centers around the principle that all living beings possess equal rights to exist and flourish. It emphasizes that the interests of other living beings should be treated with the same seriousness as human interests. Nature is considered to have intrinsic value, independent of its usefulness to humans. Deep ecology rejects anthropocentrism in favor of ecocentrism or biocentrism. For example, deep ecology recognizes that climate change is morally wrong because it negatively impacts the well-being of billions of living beings. This concept was initially advocated by Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess.

Gaia Hypothesis:

The Gaia hypothesis, also known as Gaia theory or Gaia principle, proposes that Earth and all its organisms, along with their inorganic surroundings, form an interconnected and self-regulating system that sustains the conditions necessary for life on the planet. The hypothesis was formulated by chemist James Lovelock and co-developed by microbiologist Lynn Margulis in the 1970s. It examines how the biosphere and the evolution of life forms contribute to the stability of various factors, such as global temperature, ocean salinity, and oxygen levels in the atmosphere, to maintain a preferred state of balance. The Gaia hypothesis derives its name from the Greek goddess Gaia, who represents the Earth. It is based on the assumptions that the Earth functions as a self-regulating complex system and strives to maintain a physical and chemical environment that is optimal for supporting life as we know it today.